THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH
The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive lay ,” and “He lay on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech.
The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.
I. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
NOUNS ADJECTIVES
Rubber comes from South America. This wheel has a rubber tire.
That brick is yellow. Here is a brick house.
The rich have a grave responsibility. A rich merchant lives here.
The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.
II. NOUNS AND VERBS
NOUNS VERBS
Hear the wash of the tide. Wash those windows.
Give me a stamp . Stamp this envelope.
It is the call of the sea. Ye call me chief.
Other examples are: act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause, close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule, sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound.
III. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
That is a fast boat The snow is melting fast
Draw a straight line. The arrow flew straight .
Early comers get good seats. Tom awoke early .
IV. ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
This man looks unhappy. This is the sergeant.
That book is a dictionary. That is a kangaroo.
Each day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from each .
.
V. ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS
ADVERBS PREPOSITIONS
Jill came tumbling after . He returned after the accident.
We went below . Below us lay the valley.
The weeds sprang up . We walked up the hill.
Other examples are: aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:--
NOUN. The calm lasted for three days.
ADJECTIVE. Calm words show quiet minds.
VERB. Calm your angry friend.
Other examples are: iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring.
NOUN. Wrong seldom prospers.
ADJECTIVE. You have taken the wrong road.
ADVERB. Edward often spells words wrong
.
VERB. You wrong me by your suspicions.
NOUN. The outside of the castle is gloomy.
ADJECTIVE. We have an outside stateroom.
ADVERB. The messenger is waiting outside .
PREPOSITION. I shall ride outside the coach.
ADJECTIVE. That boat is a sloop.
PRONOUN. That is my uncle.
CONJUNCTION. You said that you would help me.
ADJECTIVE. Neither road leads to Utica.
PRONOUN. Neither of us arrived in time.
CONJUNCTION. Neither Tom nor I was late.
PREPOSITION. I am waiting for the train.
CONJUNCTION. You have plenty of time, for the train is late.
INTERJECTION. Hurrah! the battle is won.
NOUN. I heard a loud hurrah .
VERB. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah .
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun ) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective ).
Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences;
To struggle was useless.
To escape is impossible.
To exercise regularly preserves the health.
To struggle is clearly a noun , for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle . Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape ; and, in the third sentence, regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to exercise regularly .
But these three forms ( to struggle , to escape , and to exercise ) are also verbs , for they express action, and one of them ( to exercise ) is modified by an adverb ( regularly ). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives .
The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to , which is called the sign of the infinitive.
The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.
I shall go .
John will win .
Mary may recite .
Jack can swim .
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. That go , win , recite , and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:--“I intend to go ,” “John is sure to win ,” “Mary is permitted to recite ,” “Jack is able to swim .”
The following sentence contains two participles :--
Shattered and slowly sinking , the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter , and sinking as a form of the verb sink . They both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly . But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives , for they are used to describe the noun frigate . Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles , because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.
The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles , so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in ing . Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs
participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Tom is coming .
Our boat was wrecked .
I have sent the money.
He has brought me a letter.
Your book is found .
They have sold their horses.
You have broken your watch.
The ship had struck on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance.
Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives (nouns and pronouns) and verbs .
Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places, or things, and verbs enable us to make statements about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no subject ; without a verb, there can be no predicate : and both a subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.
Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives and verbs. Their function is to modify other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating how , when , or where the action took place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use for adverbs.
Prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect.
Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection.
A sentence may consist of but two words,--a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,--
Charles | swims.
Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus,--
Young Charles | swims slowly.
Here the complete subject ( young Charles ) consists of a noun ( Charles ) and an adjective ( young ), which describes Charles .
The complete predicate consists of a verb ( swims ) and an adverb ( slowly ), which modifies swim by indicating how the action is performed. The subject noun ( Charles ) and the predicate verb ( swims ) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought ( Charles swims ), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included.
The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.
In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics:--
The spider | spreads her web.
The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes.
A nameless unrest | urged me forward.
Our frantic horses | swept round an angle of the road.
The infirmities of age | came early upon him.
The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in favor of the Governor General.
Salutes | were fired from the batteries.
The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.
I | have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.
Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound
subject , and two or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate .
1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well.
2. Moore and I | passed some merry days together.
3. Frances and she | are friends.
4. Hats , caps , boots , and gloves | were piled together in confusion.
5. The watch | sank and was lost .
6. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared .
7. He | neither smiled nor frowned .
8. Snow and ice | covered the ground and made our progress difficult.
.A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects ( Charles and Henry ) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives ( hats , caps , boots , gloves ) form a series in which the last two are joined by and . In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate.
The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate: and ( both ... and ), or ( either ... or ; whether ... or ), nor ( neither ... nor ).
The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.
The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.
Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive lay ,” and “He lay on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech.
The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.
I. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
NOUNS ADJECTIVES
Rubber comes from South America. This wheel has a rubber tire.
That brick is yellow. Here is a brick house.
The rich have a grave responsibility. A rich merchant lives here.
The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.
II. NOUNS AND VERBS
NOUNS VERBS
Hear the wash of the tide. Wash those windows.
Give me a stamp . Stamp this envelope.
It is the call of the sea. Ye call me chief.
Other examples are: act, address, ally, answer, boast, care, cause, close, defeat, doubt, drop, heap, hope, mark, offer, pile, place, rest, rule, sail, shape, sleep, spur, test, watch, wound.
III. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
That is a fast boat The snow is melting fast
Draw a straight line. The arrow flew straight .
Early comers get good seats. Tom awoke early .
IV. ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS
ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS
This man looks unhappy. This is the sergeant.
That book is a dictionary. That is a kangaroo.
Each day brings its opportunity. I received a dollar from each .
.
V. ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS
ADVERBS PREPOSITIONS
Jill came tumbling after . He returned after the accident.
We went below . Below us lay the valley.
The weeds sprang up . We walked up the hill.
Other examples are: aboard, before, beyond, down, inside, underneath.
Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:--
NOUN. The calm lasted for three days.
ADJECTIVE. Calm words show quiet minds.
VERB. Calm your angry friend.
Other examples are: iron, stone, paper, sugar, salt, bark, quiet, black, light, head, wet, round, square, winter, spring.
NOUN. Wrong seldom prospers.
ADJECTIVE. You have taken the wrong road.
ADVERB. Edward often spells words wrong
.
VERB. You wrong me by your suspicions.
NOUN. The outside of the castle is gloomy.
ADJECTIVE. We have an outside stateroom.
ADVERB. The messenger is waiting outside .
PREPOSITION. I shall ride outside the coach.
ADJECTIVE. That boat is a sloop.
PRONOUN. That is my uncle.
CONJUNCTION. You said that you would help me.
ADJECTIVE. Neither road leads to Utica.
PRONOUN. Neither of us arrived in time.
CONJUNCTION. Neither Tom nor I was late.
PREPOSITION. I am waiting for the train.
CONJUNCTION. You have plenty of time, for the train is late.
INTERJECTION. Hurrah! the battle is won.
NOUN. I heard a loud hurrah .
VERB. The enemy flees. Our men hurrah .
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun ) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective ).
Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences;
To struggle was useless.
To escape is impossible.
To exercise regularly preserves the health.
To struggle is clearly a noun , for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle . Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape ; and, in the third sentence, regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to exercise regularly .
But these three forms ( to struggle , to escape , and to exercise ) are also verbs , for they express action, and one of them ( to exercise ) is modified by an adverb ( regularly ). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives .
The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to , which is called the sign of the infinitive.
The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.
I shall go .
John will win .
Mary may recite .
Jack can swim .
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. That go , win , recite , and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:--“I intend to go ,” “John is sure to win ,” “Mary is permitted to recite ,” “Jack is able to swim .”
The following sentence contains two participles :--
Shattered and slowly sinking , the frigate drifted out to sea.
In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter , and sinking as a form of the verb sink . They both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly . But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives , for they are used to describe the noun frigate . Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles , because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.
The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.
A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.
The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles , so called from the time which they denote.
All present participles end in ing . Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs
participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.
Tom is coming .
Our boat was wrecked .
I have sent the money.
He has brought me a letter.
Your book is found .
They have sold their horses.
You have broken your watch.
The ship had struck on the reef.
Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.
NOTE. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE
Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance.
Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives (nouns and pronouns) and verbs .
Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places, or things, and verbs enable us to make statements about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no subject ; without a verb, there can be no predicate : and both a subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.
Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives and verbs. Their function is to modify other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating how , when , or where the action took place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use for adverbs.
Prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect.
Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection.
A sentence may consist of but two words,--a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,--
Charles | swims.
Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus,--
Young Charles | swims slowly.
Here the complete subject ( young Charles ) consists of a noun ( Charles ) and an adjective ( young ), which describes Charles .
The complete predicate consists of a verb ( swims ) and an adverb ( slowly ), which modifies swim by indicating how the action is performed. The subject noun ( Charles ) and the predicate verb ( swims ) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought ( Charles swims ), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included.
The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.
The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.
The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.
The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.
In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics:--
The spider | spreads her web.
The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes.
A nameless unrest | urged me forward.
Our frantic horses | swept round an angle of the road.
The infirmities of age | came early upon him.
The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in favor of the Governor General.
Salutes | were fired from the batteries.
The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.
I | have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.
Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound
subject , and two or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate .
1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well.
2. Moore and I | passed some merry days together.
3. Frances and she | are friends.
4. Hats , caps , boots , and gloves | were piled together in confusion.
5. The watch | sank and was lost .
6. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared .
7. He | neither smiled nor frowned .
8. Snow and ice | covered the ground and made our progress difficult.
.A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.
Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.
In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects ( Charles and Henry ) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives ( hats , caps , boots , gloves ) form a series in which the last two are joined by and . In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate.
The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate: and ( both ... and ), or ( either ... or ; whether ... or ), nor ( neither ... nor ).
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