PERSON
Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.
A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.
I, the king , command his presence. [First person.]
You, Thomas , broke the window. [Second person.]
Charles , come here. [Second person.]
He, the fireman , saved the train. [Third person.]
The diver sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]
The tower suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]
The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. Thus, I is always of the first person; you of the second; and he of the third.
Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.
A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.
I, the king , command his presence. [First person.]
You, Thomas , broke the window. [Second person.]
Charles , come here. [Second person.]
He, the fireman , saved the train. [Third person.]
The diver sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]
The tower suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]
The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. Thus, I is always of the first person; you of the second; and he of the third.
CASE
Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.
There are three cases,--the nominative , the possessive , and the objective .
The possessive case is often called the genitive .
The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference (as,-- I , me ; he , him ).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension . To decline a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the singular number and then in the plural. Thus,--
SINGULAR
Nominative boy horse fly chimney
Possessive boy’s horse’s fly’s chimney’s
Objective boy horse fly chimney
PLURAL
Nominative boys horses flies chimneys
Possessive boys’ horses’ flies’ chimneys’
Objective boys horses flies chimneys
SINGULAR
Nominative calf lass man deer
Possessive calf’s lass’s man’s deer’s
Objective calf lass man deer
PLURAL
Nominative calves lasses men deer
Possessive calves’ lasses’ men’s deer’s
Objective calves lasses men deer
NOMINATIVE CASE
The nominative case is used in the following constructions:
(1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative, (or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nominative, (5)
appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative absolute.
1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.
Water freezes.
Charles climbed the mountain.
The boy’s face glowed with health and exercise.
A thousand men were killed in this battle.
In the third example, face is the simple subject; the complete subject is the boy’s face . In the fourth, men is the simple subject; the complete subject is a thousand men . Both face and men are in the nominative case; face is in the singular number; men in the plural.
2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative.
A predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute .
Lobsters are crustaceans .
A good book is a faithful friend .
Shakspere was a native of Stratford-on-Avon.
Arnold proved a traitor .
Adams was elected president .
The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with respect to pronouns .
I am he . Are you she ?
It is I . It was we who did it.
The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is (in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs ]
3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative.
A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nominative by direct address or a vocative nominative .
Come, Ruth , give me your hand.
Turn to the right, madam .
Herbert , it is your turn.
Come with me, my child .
NOTE. A vocative word is sometimes said to be independent by direct address , because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb.
That a vocative is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun thou in this construction: as,--I will arrest thee, thou traitor .
4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative (or nominative of exclamation).
Peace , be still.
Fortunate Ruth !
A drum ! a drum ! Macbeth doth come.
Look! a balloon !
The sun ! then we shall have a fine day.
Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections
5. A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition.
An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.
Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case.
Mr. Scott, the grocer , is here. [Apposition with subject.]
Tom, old fellow , I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.]
The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a Spaniard . [Apposition with predicate nominative.]
NOTE. Apposition means “attachment”; appositive means “attached noun or pronoun.” An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective might do (compare “Balboa, a Spaniard ” with “ Spanish Balboa”). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier
POSSESSIVE CASE
The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.
John’s yacht lies at her moorings.
The duck’s feet are webbed.
The mutineer’s pistol burst when he fired.
NOTE. Most uses of the possessive come under the general head of possession in some sense. Special varieties of meaning are source (as in “ hen’s eggs”) and authorship (as in “ Wordsworth’s sonnets”).
A possessive noun or pronoun modifies the substantive to which it is attached as an adjective might do. Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.
Forms of the Possessive Case
The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending ’s .
EXAMPLES: the owl’s feathers, Elizabeth’s hat, the officer’s name.
Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the possessive case.
EXAMPLES: the owls’ feathers, the officers’ names, the artists’ petition, the engineers’ ball.
Plural nouns not ending in s take ’s in the possessive.
EXAMPLES: the firemen’s ball, the policemen’s quarters, the children’s hour.
NOTE. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well as pronounced with the ending -es or -is . Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of child is childës or childis ; that of king is kingës or kingis ; that of John is Johnës or Johnis . The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time thought the s of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun his ; that is, they took such a phrase as George’s book for a contraction of George his book . Hence they used the apostrophe before s to signify the supposed omission of part of the word his . Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought to be an omission of a final es ; that is, such a phrase as the horses’ heads was thought to be a contraction of the horseses heads. Both these errors have long been exploded.
Nouns like sheep and deer , which have the same form in both the singular and the plural, usually take ’s in the possessive plural.
Thus, the deer’s tracks would be written, whether one deer or more were meant.
POSSESSIVE SINGULAR OF NOUNS ENDING IN S .
1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an s -sound usually make their possessive singular by adding ’s .
EXAMPLES: Charles’s hat, Forbes’s garden, Mr. Wells’s daughter, Rice’s carriage, Mrs. Dix’s family, a fox’s brush.
NOTE. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule accords with the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence forms like Charles’ and Wells’ cannot be condemned as positively wrong, though Charles’s and Wells’s are preferable.
In speaking, the shorter form is often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between Dix’ and Dick’s , Mr. Hills’ and
Mr. Hill’s , Dr. Childs’ and Dr. Child’s .
2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s -sound, and not accented on the last syllable, may make their possessive singular by adding ’s , or may take no ending in the possessive.
In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in sound there is no difference between the possessive and the nominative.
EXAMPLES: Burrows’s ( or Burrows’) Hotel, Æneas’s ( or Æneas’) voyage, Beatrice’s ( or Beatrice’) gratitude, Felix’s ( or Felix’) arrival, for conscience’s ( or conscience’) sake.
Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speaking, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity; for Williams’ and William’s , Roberts’ and Robert’s , Robbins’ and Robin’s , are indistinguishable in sound.
NOTE. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s -sound and accented on the last syllable, follow the rule for monosyllables.
Thus,-- Laplace’s mathematics (not Laplace’ ); Alphonse’s father (not Alphonse’ ).
When final s is silent (as in many French names), ’s must of course be added in the possessive. Thus,-- Descartes’s philosophy (pronounced Daycárt’s ).
Use of the Possessive Case
Possession may be denoted by a phrase with of as well as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following suggestions will be of use.
I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being. A phrase with of is used instead.
The mayor of Detroit (NOT Detroit’s mayor).
The top of the post (NOT the post’s top).
The prevalence of the epidemic (NOT the epidemic’s prevalence).
Contrast the poetic use:--
Belgium’s capital had gathered then
Her beauty and her chivalry.--BYRON.
Other prepositions are sometimes used: as,--“the explosion in New
York ” (NOT “ New York’s explosion”), “the station at Plymouth .”
II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.
1. If there is actual ownership or possession of some material thing, the possessive case is generally used in the singular: as,--“John’s hat ” (not “the hat of John ”). The possessive plural, however, is often replaced by a phrase with of , to avoid ambiguity or harshness: as,--“the jewels of the ladies ” (rather than “the ladies’ jewels”)[17], “the wings of the geese ” (rather than “the geese’s wings”).
2. With nouns denoting a quality, an act, or the like, either the possessive or the of -phrase is proper: as,--“ John’s generosity,” or “the generosity of John ”; “ John’s condition,” or “the condition of John ”; “the guide’s efforts,” or “the efforts of the guide ”; “ Cæsar’s death,” or “the death of Cæsar .”
When there is any choice, it usually depends on euphony (that is, agreeable sound), and is therefore a question of style. Sometimes, however, there is a distinction in sense. “ John’s fear,” for example, indicates that John is afraid; but “the fear of John ” means the fear which John inspires in others.
III. The following phrases are established idioms with the possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be replaced by of and its object.
(1) The earth’s surface, the sun’s rays, the moon’s reflection, the pit’s mouth, a rope’s end, his journey’s end, at his wit’s end, the ship’s keel, the water’s edge, the cannon’s mouth, out of harm’s way, at swords’ points, for pity’s sake, for conscience’ sake; (2) a moment’s pause, a year’s time, a hand’s breadth, a boat’s length, a month’s salary, a week’s notice, a night’s rest, a day’s work, a
stone’s throw, a feather’s weight, an hour’s delay, a dollar’s worth, not a foot’s difference.
In the second group of phrases (“a moment’s pause,” etc.), the possessive denotes not ownership, but measure or extent .
IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns ( my , our , your , his , her , its , their ) is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual ownership.
I know him to my sorrow. [Compare: to his loss, to our detriment, to his advantage.]
The brass has lost its polish.
This question must be decided on its merits.
His arguments did not fail of their effect.
For the inflection of these pronouns, For the use of whose
. When a thing belongs to two or more joint owners , the sign of the possessive is added to the last name only.
Brown, Jones, and Richardson’s factories. [Brown, Jones, and Richardson are partners.]
It is George and William’s turn to take the boat. [George and William are to go in the boat together.]
On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, “Brown’s, Jones’s, and Richardson’s factories,” if each individual had a factory of his own; and “George’s and William’s answers were correct,” if each boy answered independently of the other.
. In compound nouns the last part takes the possessive sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun.
My father-in-law’s home is in Easton.
We had a quarter of an hour’s talk.
Other examples are the following:--
My brother-in-law’s opinion; the commander-in-chief’s orders; the lady-in-waiting’s duties; the coal dealer’s prices; Edward VII’s
reign; the King of England’s portrait; half a year’s delay; in three or four months’ time; a cable and a half’s length; the pleasure of
Major Pendennis and Mr. Arthur Pendennis’s company (THACKERAY).
NOTE. Noun-phrases often contain two substantives, the second of which is in apposition with the first. In such phrases, of is generally preferable to the possessive. Thus, we may say either “Tom the blacksmith’s daughter” or “the daughter of Tom the blacksmith”; but “the son of Mr. Hill the carpenter” is both neater and clearer than “Mr. Hill the carpenter’s son.” The use of ’s is also avoided with a very long phrase like “the owner of the house on the other side of the street.”
An objective may stand in apposition with a possessive, the latter being equivalent to of with an object. Thus,--“I am not yet of Percy’s mind [= of the mind of Percy], the Hotspur of the North” (SHAKSPERE).
The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate.
Conant’s [shop] is open until noon.
I buy my hats at Bryant’s [shop].
We will dine at Pennock’s [restaurant].
That camera is mine .
This construction is common in such expressions as:--
He was a relative of John’s .
That careless tongue of John’s will get him into trouble.
In the first example, “a relative of John’s” means “a relative of (= from among ) John’s relatives.” The second example shows an extension of this construction by analogy.
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